An Annotated Bibliography: Cultural Ecology and Subsistence Strategies of Southeast Asia In Comparison to the Rest of the World

Amano, N., Piper, P.J., Hung, H.C. & Bellwood, P. 2013. Introduced domestic animals in the neolithic and metal age of the philippines: Evidence from Nagsabaran, Northern Luzon. Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 8(3): 317–335.

           This paper argues examines the presence of the faunal remains in the Philippines in Nagsabaran shell midden in Northern Luzon. Analysis have revealed evidences for the domestication of animals during the neolithic age to metal age in the Philippines. The domesticated pigs are present n the earliest time periods while dog are introduced much later during the latter neolithic to metal age. Wild taxa have dominated the the archaeological record even up to the late metal age suggesting the reliance to hunting of the societies who have occupied the sites.

Amano, N., Rivals, F., Moigne, A.M., Ingicco, T., Sémah, F. & Simanjuntak, T. 2016. Paleoenvironment in East Java during the last 25,000 years as inferred from bovid and cervid dental wear analyses. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 10: 155–165.

           This study is done to create inference on the dietary traits of  from the dental wear signatures of bovids and cervids that were recovered on Braholo Cave and Song Terus cave in eastern Java during the Late Pleistocene to Middle Holocene. The goal is to develop insights on the recreation of the paleoenvironment 25,000 years ago to the present. Results show that the transition between the Late Pleistocene to Holocene is accompanied by the expansion of the rainforest. The predominance of the species that had browsing and mixed browsing diet is used as an evidence for this contention.

Arneborg, J., Lynnerup, N. & Heinemeier, J. 2012. Human Diet and Subsistence Patterns in Norse Greenland AD c.980–AD c.1450: Archaeological Interpretations. Journal of the North Atlantic 3: 119–133.

Bae, K., Christopher J Bae & Jong Chan Kim. 2013. Reconstructing Human Subsistence Strategies During The Korean Neolithic: Contributions From Zooarchaeology, Geosciences, And Radiocarbon Dating. Proceedings of the 21st International Radiocarbon Conference edited by A J T Jull & C Hatté RADIOCARBON, hlm. 1350–1357.

Bay, A.T.N. & Wojdak, E.M. 1993. A Regional Study Of Changing Subsistence Strategies At Newport Bay California. Proceedings of the Society for California Archaeology, hlm. 287–299.

Bellwood, P. 2017. First Islanders Prehistory and Human Migration in Island Southeast Asia. John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken.

Boethius, A. 2018. Integrating zooarchaeology to understand subsistence strategies and their implications among Early and Middle Mesolithic southern Scandinavian foragers. Lund University,.

Boone, J.L. 2002. Subsistence strategies and early human population history: An evolutionary ecological perspective. World Archaeology 34(1): 6–25.

This paper argues that the trade-off between time and energy is central to the evolutionary ecological approach. The two main propositions of this paper is that the absence or little manifestation of growth rates in prehistoric societies could be attributed to density dependent and density independent factors (population density, prey density, individual energetic efficiency and reproduction rates). The seco proposition is that the broad changes in the population growth rate across prehistory is attributed to mortality rather than the notion that it is attributed to fertility.

Boulanger, C., Ingicco, T., Piper, P.J., Amano, N., Grouard, S., Ono, R., Hawkins, S. & Pawlik, A.F. 2019. Coastal Subsistence Strategies and Mangrove Swamp Evolution at Bubog I Rockshelter (Ilin Island, Mindoro, Philippines) from the Late Pleistocene to the mid-Holocene. Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 0(0): 1–21.

Burg, M.B. 2012. Hunter-Gatherers in Dynamic Landscapes: Modeling Land Use Strategies in the Central River Valley of the Netherlands. ETopoi. Journal for Ancient Studies 3: 25–29.

Butzer, K.W. 1975. The ecological approach to archaeology: are we really trying? American Antiquity 40(1): 107–111.

Byrd, J.E. 1997. Tuscarora Subsistence Practices In The Late Woodland Period: The Zooarchaeology Of The Jordan’s Landing Site. North Carolina Archaeological Council Publication No. 27(29).

Carr, D.H. 2012. Paleoindian Economic Organization In The Lower Great Lakes Region: Evaluating The Role Of Caribou As A Critical Resource. Michigan State University,.

Chandraratne, R.M.M. 2016. Some Ethno-Archaeological Observations on the Subsistence Strategies of the Veddas in Sri Lanka. Social Affairs 1(4): 33–44.

The goal of this paper is to explore the subsistence pattern of the Veddas who are occupant of Sri Lanka by means of their equipments that have been used by this indigenous people. This project is seen to contribute to the ethno archaeological record as it could give implications on how the past societies have used their environment by means of ethnographic analogies. Results indicated their hunting and gathering activities. They bartered deer hide, dried fish cotton and honey for rice. The presence of bones that were charred could be indications of their hunting and gathering lifestyle before the historical period and remnants of these activities are still present in the present.

Chinique de Armas, Y. & Pestle, W. 2018. Assessing the association between subsistence strategies and the timing of weaning among indigenous archaeological populations of the Caribbean. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 28(5): 492–509.

Clark, G.R. 1997. Maori subsistence change: Zooarchaeological evidence from the prehistoric dog of New Zealand. Asian Perspectives 36(2): 195–219.

Conrad, C. 2015. Archaeozoology in mainland Southeast Asia: Changing methodology and pleistocene to holocene forager subsistence patterns in Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. Open Quaternary 1: 1–23.

In this paper Conrade discussed the result of the Meta-Analysis of archaeological data on 28 prehistoric sites on Southeast Asia ranging from Thailand to Malaysia. It was found out that turtles and Mullust exploitation dominated the archaeological record in reference to the hunter gatherer activities during the late Pleistocene and Holocene Period. It also emerged the the diet has been narrowed until through time although some faunal remains remain to be abundant until the 20^th century. The taxonomic composition suggests that the different between thailand and Malaysian sites is that there are more abundant wild boars in Malaysia while deer remains are in abundance in Thailand sites. Turtles and Mollusk is equally abundant in both sites. It was suggested that future research efforts could be directed on the standardization of the quantifying techniques and providing more accurate identification techniques on turtle specimens which will in turn yield to the understanding of the shifting of the subsistence strategies, paleo-environmental change, and seasonal occupation of sites throughout the mainland Southeast Asia during the Pleistocene and Holocene.

Conrad, C., Higham, C., Eda, M. & Marwick, B. 2016. Palaeoecology and forager subsistence strategies during the pleistocene - holocene transition: A reinvestigation of the zooarchaeological assemblage from spirit cave, mae hong son province, Thailand. Asian Perspectives 55(1): 1–27.

This paper analyses the zooarchaeological assemblage that was recovered from Spirit Cave with the goal of understanding the hunter gatherer use and the nature of its occupation during the Pleistocene and Holocene (12,000-7,000 BP). The analysis identified the following roundleaf bats, elongated tortoise, black marsh tortoise, Burmese hare, and potential jungle fowl. There is an evidence of irregular intervals of occupation of the cave that is seen to be associated with the human adaptation to changes in the climate and instability.

Cranbrook, E. of & Piper, P.J. 2013. Paleontology to policy: The quaternary history of Southeast Asian tapirs (Tapiridae) in relation to large mammal species turnover, with a proposal for conservation of Malayan tapir by reintroduction to Borneo. Integrative Zoology 8(1): 95–120.

Dentan, R.K. 1991. Potential food sources for foragers in Malaysian rainforest; Sago, yams and lots of little things. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 147(4): 420–444.

This paper argues the potential of Sago, Yams and many other root crops as means of subsistence strategy. It is included as it could give analogy models for the subsistence strategy of Southeast Asia. Although there have been little or no evidence in the archaeological records that could prove to this point, there is a probability for this subsistence strategy to have been utilized by the past Southeast Asians.

Dewalt, B.R. 1988. The Cultural Ecology of Development : Ten Precepts for Survival. Agriculture And Human Values: 112–123.

Dewar, R.E. 2003. Rainfall variability and subsistence systems in Southeast Asia and the western Pacific. Current Anthropology 44(3): 369–388.

Eder, J.F. 1984. The Impact of Subsistence Change on Mobility and Settlement Pattern in a Tropical Forest Foraging Economy: Some Implications for Archeology. American Anthropologist 86(4): 837–853.

Eder, J.F. 2018. The Caloric Returns to Food Collecting : Disruption and Change among the Batak of the Philippine Tropical Forest Author ( s ): James F . Eder Published by : Springer Stable URL : https://www.jstor.org/stable/4602437 The Caloric Returns to Food Collecting 6(1): 55–69.

This article argues that new livelihood practices that were introduced by commercialism have been the cause of shifts in livelihood activities among the Batak-Hunter Gatherer Society. The digging of wild Yam was displaced by gathering of Manila Copal to purchase rice. These shift has altered the productive efficiency of the Batak and the necessity of having to work longer hours because of the change in the consumption strategy does not go well with the Batak. This case is included because it gives theoretical recommendation on how other cultures could affect the subsistence strategies of a certain society. This will in turn contribute to the understanding of the subsistence shifts in that have occurred in the past hunter gatherer societies.

Endicott, K. & Bellwood, P. 2019. The Possibility of Independent Foraging in the Rain Forest of Peninsular Malaysia Author ( s ): Kirk Endicott and Peter Bellwood Source : Human Ecology , Vol . 19 , No . 2 , Human Foragers in Tropical Rain Forests ( Jun ., Published by : Springer Stable U 19(2): 151–185.

Erickson, C.L. 2006. Time , Complexity , and Historical Ecology. Time and complexity in historical ecology: Studies in the neotropical lowlands, hlm. 1–20.

Eusebio, M.S. & Jordan, A. 2015. Beyond Subsistence: Food and Foodways in Indo-Pacific Archaeology an Introduction. Journal of Indo-Pacific Archaeology 37: 1.

Frake, C.O. 1962. Cultural Ecology and Ethnography. American Anthropologist 64: 53–59.

Freilich, M. 1967. Ecology and Culture: Environmental Determinism and the Ecological Approach in Anthropology. Anthropological Quarterly 40(1): 26–43.

Gargett, R. 1988. What is Archaeology , Really ? KAS Papers: 115–148.

Garvey, R. & Bettinger, R.L. 2014. Oxford Handbooks Online.

Garvey, R. & Garvey, R. 2018. Current and potential roles of archaeology in the development of cultural evolutionary theory. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B.

Gavin, M.C., Kavanagh, P.H., Haynie, H.J., Bowern, C., Ember, C.R., Gray, R.D., Jordan, F.M., Kirby, K.R., Kushnick, G., Low, B.S., Vilela, B. & Botero, C.A. 2018. The global geography of human subsistence. Royal Society Open Science 5(9).

Gremillion, K.J., Barton, L. & Piperno, D.R. 2014. Particularism and the retreat from theory in the archaeology of agricultural origins. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 111(17): 6171–6177.

Griffin, M.B. & Griffin, M.B. 2019. Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article : The Cultural Identity of Foragers and the Agta of Palanan , Isabela , the Philippines(1996): 111–123.

Griffin, P.B. and W.G.S.I. 1990. Ethnoarchaeological Research in Asia. Asian Perspectives 28(2): 145–162.

Gunn, M.C. 1980. Cultural Ecology: A brief Overview. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/nebanthro/149.

Haberle, S.G. & Lusty, A.C. 2000. Can climate influence cultural development? A view through time. Environment and History 6(3): 349–369.

Habu, J. 2008. Growth and decline in complex hunter-gatherer societies: A case study from the Jomon period Sannai Maruyama site, Japan. Antiquity 82(317): 571–584.

Hagen, A. 2010. Man and nature . Reflections on culture and ecology Man and Nature . Reflections on Culture and Ecology. Norwegian Archaeological Review(March 2015): 37–41.

Harris, M. 1966. Cattle Sacred of India ’ s Ecology The Cultural. Current Anthropology 7(1): 261–276.

Harry, S. 2005. Subsistence: Models and Metaphors for the Transition to Agriculture in Northwestern Europe. Michigan Discussions in Anthropology 15(1): 7–48.

Hawkey, D.E. & Merbs, C.F. 1995. Activity‐induced musculoskeletal stress markers (MSM) and subsistence strategy changes among ancient Hudson Bay Eskimos. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 5(4): 324–338.

Hazarika, M. 2006. Neolithic Culture of Northeast India: A Recent Perspective on the Origins of Pottery and Agriculture. Ancient Asia 1.

Head, L. 2010. Cultural ecology : adaptation – retrofitting a concept ? Progress in Human Geography 34(2): 234–242.

Headland, T.N. 1987. The wild yam question: How well could independent hunter-gatherers live in a tropical rain forest ecosystem? Human Ecology 15(4): 463–491.

Headland, T.N., Reid, L.A., Bicchieri, M.G., Bishop, C.A., Blust, R., Flanders, N.E., Gardner, P.M., Hutterer, K.L., Marciniak, A., Schroeder, R.F. & Seitz, S. 1989. Hunter-Gatherers and Their Neighbors from Prehistory to the Present [and Comments and Replies]. Current Anthropology 30(1): 43–66.

Hunt, C.O. & Rabett, R.J. 2014. Holocene landscape intervention and plant food production strategies in island and mainland Southeast Asia. Journal of Archaeological Science 51: 22–33.

Hutterer, K.L. 1983. The Natural and Cultural History of Southeast Asian Agriculture: Ecological and Evolutionary Considerations. Anthropos 78(1/2): 169–212.

Hutterer, K.L., Allen, J., Arutiunov, S.A., Bayard, D.T., Bhattacharya, D.K., Bronson, B., Chlenov, M.A., Donkin, R.A., Ellen, R.F., Harris, D.R., Hayden, B., Higham, C.F.W., Kleindienst, M.R., Kress, J.H., Krzyzaniak, L., Moore, D.R., Pearson, R., Treloggen, J., Peterson, W., Stargardt, J. & Whyte, R.O. 1976. An Evolutionary Approach to the Southeast Asian Cultural Sequence [and Comments and Reply]. Current Anthropology 17(2): 221–242.

Jenlink, P.M. 2014. The Cultural Ecology of Scholar-Practitioner Leaders : An Ethnographic Study of Leadership. NCPEA Education Leadership Review of Doctoral Research 1(1): 1–24.

Jerardino, A., Dewar, G. & Navarro, R. 2009. Opportunistic subsistence strategies among late holocene coastal hunter-gatherers, Elands Bay, South Africa. Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 4(1): 37–60.

Jin, G.Y., Wu, W.W., Zhang, K.S., Wang, Z.B. & Wu, X.H. 2014. 8000-Year old rice remains from the north edge of the Shandong Highlands, East China. Journal of Archaeological Science 51: 34–42.

Jon, R. & Warms, R.L. 2019. Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology : An Encyclopedia Cultural Ecology: 143–147.

Joseph, S. 2000. Anthropological Evolutionary Ecology : A Critique Anthropological Evolutionary Ecology : A Critique. Journal of Ecological Anthropology 4(1): 6–30.

Junker, L.L. 1996. Hunter-gatherer landscapes and lowland trade in the prehispanic Philippines. World Archaeology 27(3): 389–410.

Kealhofer, L. 1996. Human-Environmental Relationships in Prehistory: An Introduction to Current Research in South and Southeast Asia. Asian Perspectives 35(2): 111–117.

Kirleis, W., Marinova, E., Valamoti, S.M., Dreibrodt, S. & Heiss, A.G. 2017. Subsistence strategies in change: The integration of environmental and archaeological evidence on prehistoric land-use. Quaternary International 436: 1–3.

Kolář, J., Macek, M. & Szabó, P. 2018. Using archaeology for population estimates and land use reconstructions: a perspective from Central Europe. Past Global Change Magazine 26(1): 30–31.

Lancelotti, C., Zurro, D., Whitehouse, N.J., Kramer, K.L., Madella, M. & García-granero, J.J. 2016. Resilience of small-scale societies ’ livelihoods : a framework for studying the 21(4).

Lander, F. & Russell, T. 2018. The archaeological evidence for the appearance of pastoralism and farming in southern Africa. PloS one 13(6): e0198941.

Lapka, M., Vavra, J. & Sokolikova, Z. 2012. Cultural Ecology: Contemporary Understanding of the Relationship Between Human and the Environment. Journal of Landscape Ecology 5(2r): 11–24.

Little, M.A. 2007. Human Ecology in Anthropology : Past , Present , and Prospects. Anthropologist Special Volume 3: 25–38.

Malainey, M.E. 1997. The Reconstruction and Testing of Subsistence and Settlement Strategies for the Plains, Parkland and Southern Boreal Forest. University of Manitoba,.

Marwick, B. 2006. Human Behavioural Ecology And Stone Artefacts In Northwest Thailand During The Terminal Pleistocene And Holocene: 73–80.

Mathewson, K. 1998. Cultural landscapes and ecology , 1995 ± 96 : of oecumenics and nature ( s ). Progress in Human Geography 22(1): 115–128.

Moore, J.D. 1999. Archaeology in the forgotten peninsula: prehistoric settlement and subsistence strategies in Northern Baja California. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 21(1): 17–44.

Mudar, K.M. 1995. Evidence for prehistoric dryland farming in mainland Southeast Asia: results of regional survey in Lopburi province, Thailand. Asian Perspectives 34(2): 157–194.

Nabais, M. 2018. Neanderthal Subsistence in Portugal: What Evidence? Archaeology International 2(1): 95.

Ndiema, K.E., Dillian, C.D., Braun, D.R., Harris, J.W.K. & Kiura, P.W. 2011. Transport and subsistence patterns at the transition to pastoralism, Koobi Fora, Kenya. Archaeometry 53(6): 1085–1098.

Nicholson, B.A. 1988. Modeling Subsistence Strategies In The Forest/Grassland Transition Zone Of Western Manitoba During The Late Prehistoric And Early Historic Periods. Plains Anthropologist 33(121): 351–365.

Ninh Binh Provincial People’s Committee. 2017. State of Conservation Report - Trang an Landscape Complex World Heritage Property, Ninh Binh Province, Vietnam.

Ochoa, J., Paz, V. & Lewis, H. 2014. The archaeology and palaeobiological record of Pasimbahan-Magsanib site, northern Palawan, Philippines. Philippine Science Letters 7(1): 22–36.

Orlove, B.S. 1980. Ecological Anthropology. Annual Review of Anthropology 9: 235–273.

Oxenham, M. & Buckley, H.R. 2015. The routledge handbook of bioarchaeology in southeast Asia and the pacific islands. The Routledge Handbook of Bioarchaeology in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands: 1–684.

Panja, S. 1999. Mobility and subsistence strategies: A case study of Inamgaon, a Chalcolithic site in western India. Asian Perspectives 38(2): 154–185.

Pawlik, A.F. & Piper, P.J. 2018. The Philippines from c. 14,000 to 4,000 cal. bp in Regional Context. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 29(1): 1–22.

Pawlik, A.F., Piper, P.J. & Mijares, A.S.B. 2013. Modern Humans n the Philippines Colonization, Subsistence and New Insights into Behavioral Complexity. Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling 53(9): 1689–1699.

Paz, V. 2005. Rock shelters, caves, and archaeobotany in Island Southeast Asia. Asian Perspectives 44(1): 107–118.

Pearsall, D.M. 1983. Evaluating The Stability Of Subsistence Strategies By Use Of Paleoethnobotanical Oats. Journal of Ethnobiology 3(2): 121–137.

Piper, P.J., Ochoa, J., Robles, E.C., Lewis, H. & Paz, V. 2011. Palaeozoology of Palawan Island, Philippines. Quaternary International 233(2): 142–158.

Piper, P.J. & Rabett, R.J. 2012. Late pleistocene subsistence strategies in Island Southeast Asia and their implications for understanding the development of modern human behaviour. Southern Asia, Australia and the Search for Human Origins: 118–134.

This paper describe the Paleo Environment and the Pleistocene Subsistence Strategies in the Island Asia during the Late Pleistocene. The Paleoenvironmental record indicates that the region is composed of different types of ecosystems ranging from humid tropical rainforests to open woodland and Savannah. The coastlines are believed to be Mangrove swamps. The diversity of the paleoenvironment of Southeast Asia is unique and diverse and this diversity is seen to tailor the diverse subsistence strategy during the late Pleistocene. This was attributed to the necessity of human population to adopt a range of different strategies for foraging that suites the range of resources that are available.

Price, B.J. 1982. Society for American Archaeology Cultural Materialism : A Theoretical Review Author ( s ): Barbara J . Price Cultural Materialism : A Theoretical Review. American Antiquity 47(4): 709–741.

Rabett, R., Ludgate, N., Stimpson, C., Hill, E., Hunt, C., Ceron, J., Farr, L., Morley, M., Reynolds, T., Zukswert, H., Simpson, D., Nyiri, B., Verhoeven, M., Appleby, J., Meneely, J., Phan, L., Dong, N.N., Lloyd-Smith, L., Hawkes, J., Blyth, A. & Tâń, N.C. 2017. Tropical limestone forest resilience and late Pleistocene foraging during MIS-2 in the Tràng An massif, Vietnam. Quaternary International 448: 62–81.

Rickard, J.A. 2017. As Above So Below : Preliminary Investigations for Submerged Landscape Site Discovery in the Greater by. Flinders University of South Australia,.

Rush, H.E. & San. 2013. THE ROWE VALLEY SITE (41WM437): A STUDY OF TOYAH PERIOD SUBSISTENCE STRATEGIES IN CENTRAL TEXAS. Texas State University,.

Schutkowski, H. & Herrmann, B. 1996. Geographical variation of subsistence strategies in early mediaeval populations of Southwestern Germany. Journal of Archaeological Science 23(6): 823–831.

Sergeeva, T.Y., Samigullina, A.I., Gubaidullin, A.T., Nizameev, I.R., Kadirov, M.K., Mukhitova, R.K., Ziganshina, A.Y. & Konovalov, A.I. 1985. A General Explanation of Subsistence Change: From Hunting and Gathering to Food Production. RSC Advances 6(90): 87128–87133.

Shishlina, N., Kaverzneva, E., Fernandes, R., Sevastyanov, V., Roslyakova, N., Gimranov, D. & Kuznetsova, O. 2016. Subsistence strategies of Meshchera lowlands populations during the Eneolithic period – The Bronze Age: Results from a multidisciplinary approach.

Sinha, P. 2013. Changes in Technology, Subsistence Strategies and Behavioural Pattern during the Late Upper Pleistocene in South and Southeast Asia: A Microwear Analysis. Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling 53(9): 1689–1699.

The paper discusses the changes in technology during the Late Upper Pleistocene in South Asia and Southeast Asia by using Microwear Analysis. The microwear traces that were revealed possible behavioral differences that have occurred in the region during the Late Upper Pleistocene which was indicated by the refinement of the technologies which could suggest a change in the subsistence strategies and these behavioral changes in that was inferred from the technologies are adaptions from the environment.

Sox, D.G. 1972. Resource-Use Systems Of Ancient Champa. University Of Hawaii,.

Sprenger, G. 2014. On the Edge of the Sacred Forest. Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde / Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia 170(2–3): 355–364.

Stark, M. 2016. Looking Forward By Studying the Past in East and Southeast Asian Archaeology: the Next 50 Years. Journal of Indo-Pacific Archaeology 35: 67–75.

Stark, M.T. 2015. Southeast Asia, Archaeology of. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences: Second Edition(December 2015): 63–69.

Steele, T.E. & Klein, R.G. 2009. Late Pleistocene Subsistence Strategies and Resource Intensification in Africa. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology(9781402096983): 113–126.

Sullivan, A.P. & Forste, K.M. 2014. Fire-reliant subsistence economies and anthropogenic coniferous ecosystems in the Pre-Columbian northern American Southwest. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 23(S1): 135–151.

Sutton, M.Q. & Anderson, E.N. 2010. Cultural Ecology. Introduction to Cultural Ecology, hlm. Second.

Taylor, B. 2018. Subsistence, Environment and Mesolithic Landscape Archaeology. Victorian Literature and Culture 28(3): 493–510.

Trigger, B. 1971. Archaeology and Ecology. World Archaeology 2(3): 321–336.

This essay discusses the relationship between Archaeology and Ecology. It was argued that ecology have contributed to archaeology on understanding how humans have adapted to their respective environmental settings. This is to circumvent the failure of archaeology as a discipline to fully reconstruct the totality of past cultures as it is viewed to be deterministic towards the formation of culture of a certain society.

Ullah, I.I.T., Kuijt, I. & Freeman, J. 2015. Toward a theory of punctuated subsistence change. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 112(31): 9579–9584.

Vanhanen, S. 2010. Charred seeds in Mikkeli Orijärvi: A study of subsistence strategies of an Iron Age settlement in East Finland: 108.

Vicol, M., Pritchard, B. & Htay, Y.Y. 2018. Rethinking the role of agriculture as a driver of social and economic transformation in Southeast Asia’s upland regions: The view from Chin State, Myanmar. Land Use Policy 72(January): 451–460.

Walsh, M. 2006. Subsistence and Resource Availability in Variably Isolated Insular Environments: Analysis of Zooarchaeological and Ceramic Remains from Three Sites in the Kuril Islands, Russian Far East. University of Washington,.

Wang, W., Wang, Y., An, C., Ruan, Q., Duan, F., Li, W. & Dong, W. 2018. Human diet and subsistence strategies from the Late Bronze Age to historic times at Goukou, Xinjiang, NW China. Holocene 28(4): 640–650.

Wawruschka, C. 2014. Spatial Approaches to Reconstruct Subsistence Strategies and Exchange. Proceedings of a Workshop held at the Austrian Academy of Sciences in Vienna November 13-14, 2009: 59–71.

White, J.C. 2011. Emergence of cultural diversity in Mainland Southeast Asia: a view from prehistory. Dynamics of Human Diversity: the case of mainland Southeast Asia(October): 9–46.

Ye, J. & Pan, L. 2016. Concepts and realities of family farming in Asia and the Pacific.

Yeomans, L., Martin, L. & Richter, T. 2019. Close companions : Early evidence for dogs in northeast Jordan and the potential impact of new hunting methods. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 53(August 2018): 161–173.

Zapf, H. 2010. Author: Zapf, Hubert Title: Ecocriticism, Cultural Ecology, and Literary Studies. Ecozon 1(1): 136–147.

Zulandt, D.S. 2010. Subsistence Strategies at the Zencor Site (33FR8) A Faunal Analysis of a Late Woodland Site. Ohio State University,.